During a a joint venture project of Australian, French, and Japanese researchers scientists found that there were twice as many Adélie penguins as originally thought. They observed a 5000km long coastal stretch in the East Antarctic. Instead of the expected 3.6 million birds they observed almost 6 million Adélie penguins in the study area. This would lead to an overall estimate of 14-16 million Adelie penguins world-wide.

This has, amongst others, implications on antarctic krill and other fisheries, as such a great number of penguins eats about 200,000t krill and 19,000t fish during one breeding season in the East Antarctic alone. The data were determined over several years by means of satellite technology, individual tagging and automatic camera monitoring.

Source: Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Energy

Wind may be the great and so-far strongly underestimated factor when it comes to melting of large masses of glacier ice in Antarctica. Changing wind patterns are now receiving more attention from scientists.

Researchers have so far mostly focusses on oceanic currents. Warm water masses are melting ice shelves and glaciers from the bottom. This leads to enormous quantities of glacier ice being lost – for the Totten Glacier in eastern Antarctica alone, the loss is estimated at an incredible 63-80 billion tons of ice. Per year! Totten Glacier is the largest one, but it is not alone.

The scenario gains even more horror because of the subglacial topography on a continental scale. The surface of the bedrock under the ice is sloping downwards as you get away from the coast and into the continent, not upwards as with all other continents. This is due to the heavy ice load. This means that warmer sea water, as soon as it has overcome the ice-bedrock-boundary on the edge between the (floating) ice shelf and the glacier (resting on the ground), may penetrate much more easily as it is actually moving downhill, and that’s what water likes to do. The process may accordingly accelerate significantly as it is progressing.

Now, wind is coming in as an additional factor, making the whole system much more complicated. But the result is most likely to be yet another increase of ice loss due to basal melting. Normally, there is a rather thin layer of meltwater on top of the water column of the Southern Ocean near the antarctic coast. This meltwater layer is quite thin, but due to its low salinity it has a sharp boundary to underlying warmer waters and it tends to be quite stable. It provides a thermal buffer between the cold atmosphere or glacier ice/shelf ice masses on top and warmer waters underneath.

Strong winds can, however, disturb this relatively thin, cold layer of meltwater, making the way free for more temperate water masses from greater depth to come to the surface, where they have a warming effect on ice and air.

Strong winds are expected to increase in frequency and force in decades to come in the west wind zone in the Southern Ocean. This implies more frequent weather situations that may help warmer water masses to come to the surface, where they can melt the overlying glacier ice including ice shelves.

Robust modelling and substantial prediction of this extremely complex system will require a lot of further research work and computer processing power. Nevertheless, it may be fair to draw the following conclusions, which may not actually surprise you: 1) take climate change seriously and get something done about it ASAP 2) further research is needed …

Source: wired

When you are talking about the “slow recovery of whale population after industrial whaling”, then the emphasise is on “slow” rather than on “recovery”, depending on the species. All large baleen whale species where hunted intensively with industrially brutal methods in the southern hemisphere, mostly between 1890 and 1970, although whaling (mainly by Japanese whalers) is still an ongoing fact, as most readers will be aware of. Natural, pre-whaling populations were reduced to fractions. The actual size of the original populations can only be estimated.

With today’s knowledge of reproduction, food resources etc., predictions of the future development of whale populations can be made. Of course, there are uncertainties inherent as with any model-based (or other) prediction, but some trends are nevertheless quite clear.

Results vary, depending on the species, as a recent study by Australian biologists shows. Humpback whales may be back to a natural population level, estimated near 100,000 individuals, as “soon” as around 2050. Currently, there is only a third of that number around, but humpback whale cows may give birth to a calf every year and they are benefitting from a solid nutrition base.

The larger species such as fin, blue and southern right whales will take more time. Their females five birth only once in 2-3 years. Recovery is accordingly much slower, and population levels may not be more than half of the original size in 2100, more than 100 years after whaling mostly came to an end. Factors like climate change and its influences on the marine food web and the potential threat of more whaling in the future bring additional uncertainty.

Source: csirau.au

What’s the age of Krill?

Australian researchers report in the journal PLOS ONE, that they were able to determine the exact age of Krill for the first time. As known from lobsters and crabs, the age of Antarctic krill can now also be determined by the bright and dark rings of their eye stalks. So far, krill that were older than two years could not longer be determined by their size, since environmental conditions and food supply were responsible for their growth or even shrinking. If it is possible to determine the age groups of swarms of krill the CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living) would be able to determine catch limits more precicely. Since the scientists can use the same method to age determine krill in scientific collections and museums, they soon will be able to compare the age composition of past and present krill swarms.

Samples of the study yielded ages between one and five years, but the main point of the study was to establish the technique and not to actually describe the age of krill.

A glimpse into Australia’s Antarctic Science programs: Changing phytoplankton in a changing climate: href=“http://www.antarctica.gov.au/news/2017/big-changes-predicted-for-the-smallest-southern-ocean-species“ target=“_blank“>In a review on antarctic polar science projects in recent years the authors conclude that climate change also alters the composition, the distribution and the growth of phytoplankton.

Since this phytoplankton binds carbon dioxide from the air or produces chemical substances that contribute to the formation of clouds, a change in the composition and occurrence of these tiny algae could have significant influence on the future climate as well. Glacial melting and sea ice thinning favor tiny flagellate algae, while the major diet of the Antarctic krill, the diatoms, will lose their optimal habitat. The scientists need to do more work to understand how fast and how long the phytoplankton species can adapt to their new environmental conditions.

Both trips in early 2018 with SY Anne-Margaretha to Antarctica and, respectively, Patagonia are mostly fully booked, but there are some last opportunities. There is one female seat in a twin cabin on the journey to Antarctica and one twin cabin still available in Patagonia due to a cancellation. Get in touch with me for further questions or with the Geographische Reisegesellschaft for reservation and booking. Please note that these trips will be German speaking! For this reason, the detailed descriptions are only available in German.

There are also some last opportunities for our trips in Spitsbergen in the upcoming arctic summer in 2017. On the long trip with SV Antigua (June 27-July 14, 2017), there is one space in a female twin cabin due to a recent cancellation. There is also the chance to join us on our photo- and hiking tour in Pyramiden in early September (4-11).Also these trips will be German speaking.

In the middle of the Southern Ocean there is a great wildlife paradise: South Georgia. The archipelago is well known for the large numbers of sea birds and seals that are breeding here. The land is home for four species of penguins: King penguins, Gentoo penguins, Chinstrap penguins and Macaroni penguins.

Bird Island is part of South Georgia. This little island lays northwest of the main island. British scientists have been operating a biological research station here for the last decades. This year the researchers published all their knowledge of the last 22 years on the diet and the population development of Gentoo penguins and Macaroni penguins.

The scientists found a trend in a well doing Gentoo population versus a less well doing Macaroni population. They describe the Gentoo as a generalist species, feeding in the pelagic zone as well as at the sea bottom close to the coast. The Macaroni is described as a specialist species feeding all kind of crustaceans close to the shelf-break region. However, the most important and energy rich main food of both penguin species is the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). But while the Macaroni penguin sticks to crustaceans, the Gentoo is preferring various fish species especially during the breeding season. One important source is the commercially used Mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari) .

Life is not distributed evenly in the oceans. Water masses are complex and water fronts are of high importance. An important convergence zone is situated North of South Georgia. Here a layer of cold, oxygen-rich surface water from the South meets warm, oxygen-poor surface water from the North and sinks underneath it, before the cold water continues its way northward as intermediate water layer. Such zones can be found anywhere in the world. Here, the water masses mix. They create a corridor full of life where tiny crustaceans feed on algae and are eaten by other species like fish or sea birds. This zone is so important for the southern marine ecosystem, because it is not interrupted by any land masses. It also defines the northern boundaries of the Southern Ocean. Depending on the prevailing winds, winter sea ice distribution or the amount of large icebergs in the area, this rich mixing zone moves further to the North or to the South. Interestingly, the richest Sub-Antarctic Islands are situated within this productive belt.

Penguins swim different distances to find their food. The energy intake has to be balanced. The food of a foraging bout must cover both the energy consumption during the hunting trip as well as the time the bird spends on shore. During the breeding season the food for the offspring has to be accounted for as well. If the balance is correct, the population is doing well. If the prey changes its whereabout due to changes in its habitat (water temperature, salinity, commercial fishing), the penguins have to swim further to reach their prey or they will switch to alternative prey, with less energy outcome. The energy brought along may not be sufficient enough for the offspring to survive.

Both discussed species differ clearly in their way looking for food. The Gentoo penguins with their two chicks are often staying close to the coast. They usually return to the nest after one day foraging. The Macaroni penguins use to swim about 150 kilometers for several days to catch enough food for themselves and their single chicks. Both species have the same prey species on the menu. But if they breed together, like on Bird Island, then the Gentoo prefer various kind of fish near the coast and the Macaroni catch different crustaceans on the shelf edge.

The scientists of the study would now like to understand, how changes in the diet composition of the penguins reflect changes in the marine ecosystem. Krill and fish stocks are playing a major role in this food web, since both are resources for the animal predators and the fishing industry.

A recent long-term study reports on the development of the three brush-tailed penguins: Adélie, Chinstrap and Gentoo penguins on the South Orkney Islands. The study compares their situation with the population development around the Antarctic Peninsula. The scientists can look back on a continuous census data set of 38 years, since 1978/79. Previously only sporadic counts were done. While the populations of Adélie and Gentoo penguins were subject to regular fluctuations, the number of Chinstrap penguins decreased steadily. However, the Adélie penguin colonies were also decreasing. The Gentoo penguins did relatively well over the years, their numbers were increasing – a trend that is also observed at the Antarctic Peninsula. The researchers explain the observed fluctuations with a lively exchange of nesting birds between colonies of the archipelago. At present, Adélie, Chinstrap and Gentoo penguin populations at the South Orkneys are estimated to be about 200,000, 600,000, and 5000-10,000 breeding pairs, respectively.

Today it is assumed that a change in population size can be a good indicator of changes in the ecosystem. This is researched in a number of krill-eating species, e. g. also the brush-tailed penguins. The Commission for the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources (CCAMLR) uses this data to monitor the marine Ecosystem. With that they can set catch limits for the krill and fish fisheries.

All three species are breeding together on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands. While the breeding success of all species is equally good or bad over the years in the observed period, the population development is different. Since the beginning of the continuous census Adélie penguins decreased by 42% and Chinstrap penguins by 68%. In the same period, the originally much smaller Gentoo penguin population increased by 255%! Historical data show a completely different trend between 1947 and 1978: the numbers of the first two species increased enormously during this early period.

According to some scientists, the population development seems to be correlated to the regional decline in sea ice extent and the long-term warming of the region. However, the researchers of the present study are looking a bit deeper into the context, because ice-loving Adélie penguins and ice-avoiding chinstrap penguins are subject to the same decline. They point out that the survival rate of the young penguins during their first winter, the access to krill stocks and the increase in fur seal numbers and whales as food competitors in the area, also seem to play a major role. Between 1977 and 1994, the number of fur seals increased tenfold at Signy Island.

In order to gain a better understanding for the decline of one species and the success of another, researchers have to look into the dynamics of the system even deeper. Their long-term data of the last decades and data from other field of subjects are important components for future models and understanding of the processes observed.

Many antarctic visitors have enjoyed the hospitality of the Ukrainian Vernadsky Base. Now you can visit Vernadsky without actually traveling to Antarctica: there is now a new, complete panorama tour of the base on this website, from selected scientific working areas to the famous Faraday Bar. Click here and have fun!

North-West of the Antarctic Peninsula the South Shetland Islands are situated. Here research stations of many countries are gathering, because some of the islands are easy to reach by ship and there are relatively large ice free areas. During the last decades the climate has become noticeable warmer inWest-Antarctica, particularly at the Peninsula. Some people are comparing the summer weather of the South Shetland Islands already with the summer weather at the Falkland Islands.

The largest island of the South Shetlands is King George Island. It is approximately situated 1000 km South of Cape Horn. One-tenth of the island is free of ice and offers sufficient space for 24 research stations and refuges of 12 nations. 8 stations are operated all year long. German researchers are regularly in the area during summer time. On King George Island, many biologists tend to work. They observe the scarce plant life. Others analyse terrestrial-maritime food chain connections or study marine habitats. Ornithologists usually work with penguins or skuas. But all scientists usually also have an eye for unusual occurrences.

Polish researchers have been studying birdlife at the South Shetland Islands for almost 40 years, since their station opened for the first time in 1977. In 1981, White-rumped sandpipers (Calidris fuscicollis) were observed for the first time on Ardley Island, a small tidal island in Maxwell Bay. However, this does not mean that this species has not visited the area before. The observation program only got started in 1977. Since then small groups or single birds have appeared in the region. Over an period of 30 years, these small waders were observed during twelve years. In eight of these cases spring was warmer than usual.

White-rumped sandpipers are migratory birds of superlatives, like the Arctic tern. They breed in the Arctic tundra of North America. Within a month, the birds migrate in big flocks to the South, almost without rest. Reaching the coast of Suriname, they then turn in to the continental route and cross the Brazilian Amazon region. In October they arrive in their wintering areas in Argentina and Chile. The most restless individuals continue further and spend the winter in Tierra del Fuego or the Falkland Islands. Why some individuals would head for islands in the cold Antarctic waters, such as South Georgia, South Orkney, or South Shetlands, the researchers begin to understand slowly.

In contrast to other regions of the Antarctic continent, the Antarctic Peninsula experiences a rapid, dramatic warming. Measurements of average summer temperatures resulted in an increase of 2 degrees, the average temperatures for the winter are yet 5-6 degrees higher than 50 years ago. Lower winter temperatures and the existing hole in the ozone layer are responsible for less frequent but stronger periodical westerlycyclone systems. They transfer warm, moist, maritime air to the coast of the Peninsula including a number of feathered vagrants.

In addition, the season with sea-ice cover is about 90 daysshorter than 4 decades ago. At the Antarctic Peninsula, the sea ice arrives later and disappears earlier. All this are preconditions for faunal and floral change over the coming decades. This is especially the case for the most northerly spur of the Antarctic: the South Shetland Islands.

So it is no big surprise that even during in January this year, attentive guides and tourists at King George Island have been spotting a small flock of White-rumped sandpiper. They report them “foraging on mud in the outflow stream from a meltwater pond. The amount of time they spent resting calmly and preening suggested that they were not desperate for food.” (Stephen F. Bailey auf M/V Akademik Sergey Vavilov, in: IAATO-Newsletter)

Three young men have completed their their daring expedition last month, reported Foxnews. Two Chileans and a Spaniard paddled for eleven days within the South Shetland archipelago. They started their journey on January 20th in Punta Arenas, Chile. With the support of the Chilean coast guard, the three adventurers crossed the Drake Passage. Three days later they arrived at the Chilean research station Arturo Prat on Greenwich Island. With some delay they set out on January 28th. The kayakers traveled 20-30 kilometres per day. They explored the islands and met a pristine and unique nature. Their route led them along waterways, which no ship can sail on, because of the prevailing shallows.

The following section is a summarised translation from their blog entries.

After 22 miles we turned into McFarlane Strait. Here we were stopped by 35 knots of wind. We had to take shelter in Yankee Harbour. January 31st, we crossed the strait in poor visibility. Fighting strong currents we reached Point Williams and faced a great scenery. The next day is still windy and despite a strong swell of the Drake Passage, we venture to Barientos Island. The following day is foggy again. We reach Robert Island only with the help of the compass. But here we find shelter in the Chilean refuge hut Risopatron waiting for the forecasted storm to pass. Also February 3rd is rather seriously. In spite of breaking sea we enjoy the basalt cliffs and a pod of Orcas on this short leg. The following day 25 knots of wind were pushing us towards Nelson Island. The high swell exhausted. Nevertheless, we were happy when we were arriving at our day’s destination. We approached Maxwell Bay after surrounding Nelson Island on the South side. On February 6th, just before the finish, we got soaked again by wind and waves. It was the coldest day of the expedition! However, next day we received a warm deserved welcome on the Chilean Base Frei.

Map – Kayak adventure in the Southern Ocean

Route of the Chilean kayak expedition.

The South Shetland Islands are a weather-exposed land mass in the Southern Ocean. Cyclones that pass through the Drake Passage often touch the archipelago. The stormy sea strikes almost unbraked the coast of the islands. This archipelago is as wild and rough as the continent. Only a small area is ice-free, the rest is buried under massive glaciers. Thousands of penguins and seals rest and nest here. Sometimes you can even see single Macaroni penguins or a stray Emperor. Aside the common Crabeater seals and Weddel seals also Fur seals and Elephant seals often occupy beach. Some places are even “green”. The reason are algae and in sheltered spots mosses and lichens.
The South Shetland Islands are of volcanic origin. The kayakers passed areas with steep basalt cliffs that are characteristic for the landscape here. As bizarre as the cliffs protrude from the water, the sea-bottom at these locations looks similar. This forms local wild tidal channels, but also high breakers when old swell hits the coast. The glaciers contribute to the local climate. Cold, strong winds often whistle through the narrow waterways between the islands.

Why are people looking for such superlative ventures? In 2000 three young Americans wanted to carry out a similar expedition. But they did not get further than to circumnavigate Nelson Island. They had planned for Livingston Island and Deception Island. The weather forced them to the shorter route. Ten years later, the New Zealand girl Hayley Shephard planned the circumnavigation of South Georgia. The weather put a spoke in the wheel of her plans too and she not even made it half way. What all of the kayakers had in common is the experience of nature in an inhospitable remote area. In spite of all the cold and the isolation it is stunningly beautiful and offers an surprisingly abundant wildlife. Hayley knew that. So instead of personal fame she wanted the public alertness for the state of the albatrosses of the South Polar Ocean.

In 2012, the British Antarctic Survey had built an ultra-modern research station, on the eastern side of the Weddell sea: Halley
VI. The five previous stations were either covered in snow or not safe to use anymore. Similar to the German research stationNeumayer III, where researchers moved in for the first time in 2009, Halley VI is situated on the shelf ice. Already Neumayer III was perfectly constructed for the prevailing conditions. It should be able to withstand the locally strong winds and drifting snow should not accumulate to the buildings. Since ice is moving, shear forces would act on the construction, too. Fore these reasons the building was erected on hydraulic legs, which gradually could lift it to the level of the current snow layer. However, the German base is fixed to the ice below. At the present location the station is drifting to the shelf ice edge
with a speed of 157 metres per year. The British improved their new construction, and in February 2012, a modular building on ski was ready to move in on the Brunt ice shelf. It can also be lifted hydraulically. Each year, 1.5 metres of snow accumulate due to either snow fall or snow drift. The approximately 150 metre thick ice shelf below Halley VI moves with a speed of more than 400 meters per year. To prevent the loss of the base over the years, heavy vehicles are able to move the individual modules on their ski from its location.

When Halley VI was used for the first time in 2012, several chasms in the shelf ice South of the station were already known. Almost one year later, after 35 years of inactivity, the chasms started to grow again. The crack closest to the station increased by approximately 1.7 kilometres per year. Last October, researchers detected a new fissure in the North. They worried about the station to be cut off from the mainland. Therefore, BAS decided for the relocation of the Halley VI, and the station would not be available for research for 3 years. Within that time, the transfer of the buildings should be
completed. During the Antarctic summer of 2015/16 scientists surveyed the area for a new location and a safe route for transport. It is about 23 kilometres further inland. Camps for fieldworkers and engineers will be build and the first modules are getting on the road during the current summer. The researchers hope that the base will be ready for work for the 2017 summer team. The supply route over the shelf-ice edge would then be extended to 40 kilometres. Better safe than sorry!

In the beginning of January, British researchers notified on the current situation of the Larsen C Ice Shelf. This ice shelf is located on the East side of the Antarctic Peninsula. A well known and observed crack has grown quickly larger during 2016. The German Alfred Wegener Institute reported about that topic during the last few months on its Ice Blog. Between May and August 2016 the scientists observed an extension of a crack by 25 km. In December this crack expanded another 18 km. The anterior part of the Ice Shelf is now only connected to the remaining Shelf by a 20 km wide “bridge”.

The British Antarctic Survey experts suppose a possible break-off scenario of the approximately 50,000 km² shelf ice area already later this year. In recent years, researchers have given special attention to the “Larsen C” ice shelf. The earlier collapses of the Larsen A (1995) and Larsen B (2002) Ice Shelves had clearly shown one effect: The floating ice acts as a barrier and slows down land based glaciers behind. The loss of such a barrier results in the acceleration of glaciers behind it. Larsen C covers an area about 15 times larger than the 2002 lost ice of Larsen B. Thus it also holds back larger glaciers masses. Two questions are interesting in that context: What causes the break-off of the ice shelf? And what are the consequences of the ice loss?

Scientists have gained a lot of new knowledge about the underlaying processes of the loss of shelf ice during the last years. The collapse of Larsen B was most likely the result of the increased annual temperatures on the peninsula over the past 50 years. During that period of time the researchers have shown an average increase of 2.5 degrees. As a consequence of the warming, the snow layer and the firn layer on the ice shelf vanished more rapidly during summer. Thus melt water ponds evolved more frequently. These lakes froze during winter. Ice of this origin is warmer and softer than the surrounding ice, which has been formed by the transformation of snow to firn to glacier ice. The melt water zones in the glacial ice change the structure of the entire ice shelf. The following summer these zones will start to melt earlier. This effect caused the sudden collapse in Larsen B in 2002.

For the detachment of Larsen C this effect is not the only reason. The results of the BAS studies show a declining firn layer and a decreasing thickness of the snow layer, due to an increased annual air temperature of the area. Further ice loss occurs at the bottom of the ice shelf by warmer water currents. The warming of the earth’s atmosphere and the Antarctic ozone hole strengthen the West wind currents and thus the circumpolar current. This gives enough energy to swash up warmer and saltier water masses from the ocean depths to the continental shelf. The scientists calculated the thinning of the ice to 4 meters, in the period of 1998 and 2012.

What would be the consequences, when Larsen C will disappear? The shelf ice itself has no impact on the sea-level, since shelf ice is floating ice. However, there would not be any other barrier for the land based glaciers behind. They will increase their speed. In the case of Larsen B the surrounding land based glaciers accelerated five times their previous velocity. These glaciers lost a lot of ice, cracked, thinned, and retreated. Meltwater ponds on top of the glaciers, drained into the new cracks and weakened the glacier ice. In a similar scenario for Larsen C, the researchers predict a contribution to the global sea level rise of 50 cm until the year 2100, which will be a challenge for many coastal cities.

http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11897

Lantern fruits in Antarctica? Tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco from the big ice?

According to the online news section of the magazine Science, US-American and Argentinian researchers have found fossils in Patagonia, Argentina, that belong to the nightshade family, as today’s tomatoes, potatoes and tomatillos.

These plants lived more than 50 million years ago in a warm, humid climate, when South America was still very close situated to the Antarctic Peninsula. The Drake Passage did not yet exist. Instead, a shallow shelf sea separated the Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic and South America from Antarctica. At the same time, the border between the subtropical climate zone and the temperate climate zone went across the Antarctic Peninsula. Before the Antarctic continent got covered by snow and ice, it might well have been that these ancient ground-cherries also grew in Antarctica.

With the drastic climate change towards the ice conditions already on the horizon, Antarctica did not become a lantern fruit place. In contrast, it is by far the most hostile continent on the planet and not your place at all if you are a tomato.

Source: Science Daily